Bibliography on CMC
Copyright (C) ProjectH
This bibliography has been compiled by participants of ProjectH. It is
not to be considered complete, edited or perfect. It is the product of
much work and we take the copyright notice seriously.
Coordinators:
Sheizaf Rafaeli, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel,
sheizafr@shum.cc.huji.ac.il
Fay Sudweeks, University of Sydney, Australia
fays@arch.usyd.edu.au
Date: November 1994
Additions, amendments, comments to:
fays@arch.usyd.edu.au
Adrianson, L., and Helmquist, E. (1988). User's experiences of COM-A
computer-mediated communication system, Behaviour and Information
Technology 7: 77-99.
Akin, O. and Rao, D. R. (1985). Efficient computer-user interface in
electronic mail systems, International Journal of Man-Machine Studies,
22(6): 589-611.
Investigated the question of user-computer inferface using a
general purpose method for encoding and measuring efficiency of use
in computer systems. Three experts with a given system and 3 Ss
with routine knowledge of it participated as Ss and were observed
performing several mailing tasks. While experts performed these
tasks with fewer errors and in a more complete manner, it was not
clear that they achieved this any faster than regular users.
Recommendations for system design are made. (14 ref) [S. Rafaeli]
Almquist, E. (1992). Impact of electronic media on scientific research,
communication and collaboration, Faxon Institute Annual Conference,
Reston, Va.
Anderson, J. R. and Meyer, ? (1988). Mediated Communication: A Social
Action Perspective, Sage Publication.
Anderson, J. R. and Schooler, L. J. (1991). Reflections of the
environment in memory, Psychological Science, 2(6): 396-408.
Availability of human memories for specific items shows reliable
relationships to frequency, recency, and pattern of prior exposures
to the item. These relationships have defied a systematic
theoretical treatment. Empirical data about a number of
environmental sources ( New York Times, parental speech,
electronic mail) are examined to show that the probability that a
memory will be needed also shows reliable relationships to
frequency, recency, and pattern of prior exposures. Moreover, the
environmental relationships are the same as the memory
relationships. It is argued that human memory has the form it does
because it is adapted to these environmental relationships. Models
for both the environment and human memory are described. [S.
Rafaeli]
Anis, N. (1991). Interview with Ward Christensen the first BBS operator,
BoardWatch Magazine, April: 14-22.
Aubret, J. and Damiani, C. (1989). Telematique, information et
orientation: analyse des questions et des reponses de deux messageries
telematiques (Telematics, information and guidance: Analysis of questions
and answers from two electronic mail boxes), Orientation Scolaire et
Professionnelle, 18(2): 155-169.
Baer, V. E. (1988). Getting to know the neighbors: An information exchange
between two middle schools, The Computing Teacher, 15(8): 20-23
Baym, N. (1992). Computer-mediated soaptalk: Communication, community
and entertainment on the net. Presented at SCA and American Folklore
Society.
Bazerman, C. (1988). Shaping Written Knowledge: The genre and activity of the
experimental article in science, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Beals, D. (1992). Computer networks as a new data base, Journal of
Educational Computing Research, 8(3): 327-345.
On content analysis [F. Henri]
Benedikt, M. (1991). Cyberspace: First Steps, MIT Press, Cambridge MA.
Berger, C. R. and Chaffee, S. H. (198?) On bridging the communication
gap, Human Communication Research, 15(winter): 311.
Biber, D. (1988). Variations Across Speech and Writing, Cambridge University
Press, New York.
Black, S. D., Levin, J. A., Mehan, H. and Quinn, C. N. (1983). Real and
non-real time interaction: unraveling multiple threads of discourse,
Discourse Processes, 6: 59-75.
Boehlefeld, S. (1992). "Does she do the Vulcan mind meld on the first
date?" Doing gender in computer-mediated communication. Unpublished
manuscript.
Bolter, J. (1991). Writing Space: The Computer, Hypertext and the History
of Writing, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
Broadbent, K. (1990). New information-communication technologies in
scientific communication: implications for third-world users, The
Information Society, 7: 203-232.
Brock, G. W. (1994). Telecommunications Policy for the Information Age:
From Monopoly to Competition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Defends a decentralized approach to telecommunications policy
in the US. [newbooks]
Bromberg, C. (1991). In defense of hackers, New York Times Magazine, 21 April,
p. 44.
Brown, P. and Levinson, S. (1978). Universals in language usage, in E. N. Goody
(ed.), Questions and Politeness, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp.56-289.
Bull, Glenn, et al. (1989). The electronic academical village, Journal of
Teacher Education, 40(4): 27-31
Carey, J. (1980). Paralanguage in computer mediated communication,
Proceedings of the 18th Annual Meeting of the Association for
Computational Linguistics, Philadelphia.
Carley, K. and Wendt, K. (1991). Electronic mail and scientific
communication: a study of the Soar extended research group, Knowledge:
Creation, Diffusion, Utilization, 12: 406-440.
A new type of scientific research group is emerging - the extended
research group (a large number of geographically dispersed researchers
working together in a coordinated fashion). This article describes
the roles that various modes of communication (such as face-to-face
discussion and EMail), types of information communicated, and types of
social ties played in the communication behavior of one such group,
computer analysts and programmers working on a specialized language
model called Soar, which stands for "state operator and result." The
authors show that the Soar group used different communication modes to
acquire different types of information and that EMail enhanced rather
than reduced the impact of traditional scientific communication
networks.
Caswell, S A. (1988). E-mail, Converging Technology Series, Gage, Agincourt,
Canada.
Chaffee, S. H., Gomez-Palacia, C. and Rogers, E. M. (1990). Mass
communication research in Latin America: Views from here and there,
Journalism Quarterly, 67(4): 1015-1024.
Chesebro, J. W. (1985). Computer mediated interpersonal communication, in B.
D. Ruben (ed.), Information and Behavior, Vol. 1, Transaction Books, New
Brunswick, NJ, pp. 202-222.
Chesebro, J. and Bonsall, D. (1989). Computer-Mediated Communication: Human
Relationship in a Computerized World, University of Alabama Press, USA.
This text focuses on computers as a means of communication. It begins
with a discussion of the information society and continues with the
types of computer-human communication (including artificial
intelligence) and then briefly touches on societal issues at the
end. [Richard Foote]
Christians, C. E., Ferre, J. P. and Fackler, P. M. (1993). Good News:
Social ethics and the press, Oxford University Press, New York.
Offers a community-centered approach to media ethics that challenges
the classical liberal ideal of the autonomous individual [newbooks]
Clark, C. (1988). Confessions of an educator/SYSOP, The Computing Teacher,
15(9): 11-12
Clement, A. (1990). Cooperative support for computer work: a social
perspective on the empowering of End Users, CSCW 90 Proceedings.
Cohen, H. (1994). The History of Speech Communication: The emergence of
a discipline, 1914-1945, Speech Communication Association, Annandale,
VA.
After more than 40 years as a teacher, researcher and
department administrator, Professor Cohen has written a
detailed and comprehensive volume on the discipline from its
"derivative" stage, having its beginnings with the National
Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) to the "embryonic"
stage in the development of such divisions as Interpersonal
Communication, Organizational Communication, and others.
[Newbooks]
Computer communications in cross-border coalition-building: North American
NGO networking against NAFTA, Gazette: The International Journal of Mass
Communication Studies, 50(2/3) (1992).
Contractor, N. S. and Eisenberg, E. M. (1990). Communication networks and new
media in organizations, in J. Fulk and C. W. Steinfield (eds.), Organizations
and Communication Theory, Sage, Newbury Park, CA, pp. 143-172.
Corbin, R. A. (1991). The development of the National Research and
Education Network, Information Technology and Libraries, Scientific
American, September: 212-220.
Cox, R. and Tomer, C. (1992). Electronic mail: implications and
challenges for records managers and archivists, Records and Retrieval
Report 8 (November) (available from GP Subscription Publications,
88 Post Road West, PO Box 5007, Westport CT 06881 [C. Nowicke].
Critical Connections: Communication for the Future (1990). U.S. Congress,
Office of Technology Assessment, Washington
Crowley, M. L. (1989). Organizing for electronic messaging in the schools, The
Computing Teacher, 16(7): 23:26
Culnan, M. J. and Markus, M. L. (1988). Information technologies, in G. A.
Barnett and G. M. Goldhaber (eds), Handbook of Organizational Communication,
Ablex, Norwood, NJ, pp. 420- 443.
Czajkowski, A. and Kiesler, S. (1984). Computer-mediated communication:
Or the new next best thing to being there, National Forum, 64(3): 31-34.
Dannefer, W. D. and Poushinsky, N. (1977). Language and community: CB in
perspective, Journal of Communication, 27: 122-126.
Danowski, J. A. (1982). Computer mediated communication: A network-based
analysis using a CBBS conference, in M. Burgoon (ed.), Communication Yearbook
6, Sage, Beverly Hills, pp 905-924.
Danowski, J. A. and Edison-Swift, P. (1985). Crisis effects on
intraorganizational computer-based communication, Communication Research,
12(2): 251-270.
Examined a midwestern state extension agency's change in
computer-based communication structures in response to a crisis.
All private electronic mail messages were "captured" (users were
unaware their messages were obtained) for 1 yr. Monthly network
analysis revealed that electronic mail patterns changed with the
occurrence of a crisis associated with merger, funding changes, and
staff positions. Content analysis of the messages revealed
significant increases in words associated with the organizational
changes. (9 ref) [S. Rafaeli]
Danziger, Dutton, Kling and Kraemer, Computers and politics.
Denning, P. J. (1982). Electronic junk, Communications of the ACM, 25:
163-65.
Dennis, A. R., George, J. F., Jessup, L. M., Nunamaker, J. F., Jr.,
& Vogel, D. R. (1988). Information technology to support electronic
meetings. MIS QUARTERLY, 12(4), 591-624.
Dennis, A.R. and Valacich, J.S. (1993) Computer brainstorms: More heads
are better than one. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(4), 531-537.
Contrary to previous research, this experiment finds cmc groups'
brainstorming superior in generating ideas among 12 member groups.
They attribute the process to fewer process losses (less production
blocking, less evaluation apprehension, and less free riding), while
process gains are present (synergy and avoidance of redundancy). For
smaller groups (6 members) there was n difference between nominal
and electronic groups. [Author's abstract]
DeSanctis,G.,& Gallupe, R. B. (1987). A foundation for the study
of group decision support systems. MANAGEMENT SCIENCE, 33(5), 589-609.
Dillman (1978) Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method.
Dillon, R. F. and Tombaugh, J. W. (1982). Psychological research on
videotex, Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 14(2): 191-197.
Videotex is a powerful, but simple to use, computer network
available for use in homes, offices, and schools. Information can
be requested and displayed on the user's TV. While retrieval of
information is the 1st service provided on videotex, many other
services, including electronic mail, electronic shopping, and
electronic funds transfer, will be developed. In order to achieve
popularity, a number of human factors and social problems must be
solved. Research concerning some of these problems and the role
psychologists can play in their solution is described. (6 ref) [S.
Rafaeli]
Downing, T. et al. (1988). Improving instructor/student interaction with
electronic mail, Engineering Education, 78(4): 247-50
Dubrovsky, V. J., Kiesler, S. and Sethna, B. N. (1991). The
equalization phenomenon: status effects in computer-mediated and face-to-face
decision making groups, Human Computer Interaction, 6: 119-146.
Compared face-to-face (FTF) communication with electronic mail in
decision-making groups whose members differed in social status,
which was examined by varying the external status of group members
and by varying the decision task to manipulate expertise. Ss were
96 university students. When the groups made decisions in FTF
meetings, the high-status member dominated discussions with the 3
low-status members. Also, the high-status member more often was a
first advocate in the FTF discussions, and first advocates were
more influential than later advocates. These status inequalities in
FTF decision making were pronounced just when the high- status
member's expertise was relevant to the decision task. When the
same groups made comparable decisions using electronic mail, status
and expertise inequalities in participation were reduced. [S.
Rafaeli]
Dunlop, C. and Kling, R. (eds) (1991). Computerization and Controversy.
Value Conflicts and Social Choices, Academic Press, San Diego.
Many students, professionals, managers, and laymen are hungry for
honest, probing discussions of the opportunities and problems of
computerization. This anthology introduces some of the major
social controversies about the computerization of society. It
highlights some of the key value conflicts and social choices
about computerization. It helps readers recognize the social pro-
cesses that drive and shape computerization, and to understand
the paradoxes and ironies of computerization
Some of the controversies about computerization covered in this
collection include:
* the appropriateness of utopian and anti-utopian scenarios
for understanding the future
* whether computerization demonstrably improves the
productivity of organizations
* how computerization transforms work
* how computerized systems can be designed with social
principles in view
* whether electronic mail facilitates the formation of new
communities or undermines intimate interaction
* whether computerization is likely to reduce privacy and
personal freedom
* the risks raised by computerized systems in health care
* the ethical issues when computer science researchers accept
military funding
* the extent to which organizations, rather than "hackers,"
are significant perpetrators of computer abuse
[R. Kling]
Durand, D., Weitzel, J. and Hansen, A. (1989). Computer analysis of
sensory predicate use in written and oral communication, Psychological
Reports, 65(2): 675-684.
49 employees from all operational levels of a manufacturing
firm communicated with researchers 3 times in the following
forms: a written reply to a letter, a telephone conversation
discussing the written reply, and a written electronic mail
message. The samples were transcribed into a computer file
for processing by the Rapport Augmentation Program, which
uses a neurolinguistic programming technique to assess
sensory predicate (SPD) patterns. SPDs were detected in all
3 communication modes, but were detected significantly more
often in spoken than in written communication. Results
support the union of information technology with SPD
matching to improve written communication. [S. Rafaeli]
Egido, C. (1990). Teleconferencing as a technology to support
cooperative work: Its possibilities and limitations, in J. Galegher, R.
Kraut and C. Egido (eds), Intellectual Teamwork: Social and
Technological Foundations of Cooperative Work, Erlbaum, Hillsdale,
pp.351-371.
Eklundh, K. S. (1986). Dialogue processes in computer-mediated
communication: a study of letters in the COM system, Doctoral
dissertation, University of Linkoping, Sweden.
Eklundh, K.S. (1987). Explicit and implicit feedback in computer-mediated
communication, Computer Networks and ISDN Systems, 14, 147-153.
An analysis is made of different kinds of feedback according to their
role and function in computer-mediated dialogue. Specifically, the
distinction between explicit and implicit feedback to a message is
discussed with reference to the author's doctoral dissertation on
letter-writing in the COM system. It will be shown that implicit
feedback has a greater and partly a different role in computer-mediated
communication compared to face-to-face communication, due to specific
conditions for communication in the medium and specifically the time
delay. Communicative strategies are discussed which may be important
in overcoming feedback problems. Finally, some aspects of system
design which influence feedback conditions will also be discussed.
[Author's abstract]
Ermann, M. D., Williams, M. B. and Gutierrez, C. (1990) Computers, Ethics
and Society, Oxford University Press.
Starts out with basic works on ethics, then applies the concepts of
ethics to various computer issues that will like face graduates
entering the information society in the 1990s. [Richard Foote]
Eveland, J. D. and Bickson, T. K. (1988). Work group strutures and computer
support: A field experiment, ACM Transactions on Office Information
Systems.
Ezirim-Onyejekwe, E. R. (1989). The effect of communicator style on perceived
impact of computer mediated messages (CMM) and CMM use in organizations,
Unpublished dissertation, Ohio University.
Feldman, M.S. (1987). Electronic mail and weak ties in organizations, Office:
Technology and People, 3: 83-101.
Ferrara, K., Brunner, H. and Whittemore, G. (1991). Interactive written
discourse as an emergent register, Written Communication, 8(1): 8-34.
Finholt, T., and Sproull, L. S. (1990). Electronic groups at work, Organization
Science, 1(1): 41-64.
Studied how electronic communication affects groups in
organizations by analyzing ingoing and outgoing electronic mail
messages of 96 company employees. Findings highlight the scope and
diversity of distribution list activity in the organization. At
least some of the groups behaved like real social groups, despite
the fact that they shared no physical space, their members were
invisible, and their interaction was asynchronous. Benefits of
understanding electronic groups for organization theory are
outlined. [S. Rafaeli]
Finholt, T., Sproull, L. S. and Kiesler, S. (forthcoming). Communication and
performance in ad hoc task groups, in J. Galegher, R. E. Kraut and C. Egido
(eds), Intellectual Teamwork: Social and Technical Bases of Cooperative Work,
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Forsyth, D. R. (1990). Group Dynamics, 2nd edn, Brooks/Cole, Pacific
Grove, CA.
Foulger, D. (1990). Medium as Process: The structure, use, and practice of
computer conferencing on IBM's IBMPC computer conferencing facility, PhD
Dissertation, Temple University.
Frand, J. L. and Britt, J. A. (1990). Sixth Annual Survey of Business
School Computer, Communications of the ACM, 33(5): 544-562.
Use of the computer in a survey of schools currently accredited
by the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business.
Frederick, H. H. (in press). Computer networks and the emergence of
global civil society: the case of the association for progressive
communication (APC), in L. Harasim and J. Walls (eds), Globalizing
Networks: Computers and International Communication, Oxford.
Freeman, L. C. (1984). The impact of computer based communication on the
social structure of an emerging scientific speciality, Social Networks, 6:
201-221.
Fulk, J. (1993) Social construction of communication technology, Academy
of Management Journal, 36:5, 921-950.
Galegher, J., Kraut, R. and Egido, C. (eds) (1990). Intellectual
Teamwork: Social and Technological Foundations of Cooperative Work,
Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
Gallupe, R. B., Dennis, A. R., Cooper, W. H., Valacich, J. S., Bastianutti,
L. M. and Nunamaker, Jr., J. F. Electronic brainstorming and group size,
Academy of Management Journal, 35(2): 350-369.
Compared the number and quality of unique ideas generated by groups
... using electronic and nonelectronic, verbal brainstorming. The
larger groups ... generated more unique ideas and more high-quality
ideas, and members were more satisfied when they used electronic
brainstorming than when they used verbal brainstorming. The authors
interpret these results as showing that electronic brainstorming
reduces the effects of production blocking and evaluation apprehension
on group performances, particularly for large groups.
Garramone, G. M., Harris, A. C., and Anderson, R. (1986). Uses of political
computer bulletin boards, Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 30(3):
325-339.
Garramone, G. M., Harris, A. C., and Pizante, G. (1986). Predictors of
motivation to use computer-mediated political communication systems, Journal of
Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 30(4): 445-457.
Garry, P. M. (1994). Scrambling for Protection: The New Media and the
First Amendment, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh.
Argues that innovations in electronic communications technology
will force a new constitutional definition of the press under the
First Amendment. [newbooks]
Geirland, J. G. (1986). Satisfaction with the use of an electronic mail
system: A socio-technical systems analysis of manager-secretary teams,
Dissertation Abstracts International, 47(2-B): 829-830.
Gilbert, N. (in press, 1993). CSCW for real, in Diaper, D. and Sanger, C.
(eds). CSCW with Existing Technology: Experience and Case Studies,
Springer-Verlag, London.
Givon, T. (1983). Topic continuity in discourse: an introduction, in T. Givon
(ed.), Topic Continuity in Discourse: A Quantitative Cross-Language Study, John
Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 1-41.
Givon, T. (1984). Universals of discourse structure and second language
acquisition, in W. Rutherford (ed.), Language Universals and Second Language
Acquisition, John Benjamins, Amsterdam.
Goldmann, N. (1992). Online Information Hunting, Tab Books.
Grief, I. (ed.) (?) Collaborative Systems.
Hahm, W. and Bikson, T. (1989). Retirees using email and networked
computers, International Journal of Technology and Aging, 2(2): 113-123.
Examined whether older people could learn to use computers, and
whether computer networks (electronic mail (EM)) contribute to
social structures and interpersonal interactions. 80 retired and
employed individuals prepared a report either with computers and EM
(electronic group) or without computers (standard group). Ss were
trained on the computer, and interviewed concerning the computer,
its network, software, and the group. EM increased interaction
within the electronic group, and was ranked positively in surveys
by its users. Limitations in Ss' abilities to learn to use the
computer are discussed. [S. Rafaeli]
Harasim, L. M. (1989). Online education: A new domain, in R. Mason
and A. Kaye (eds), Mindweave: Communication, Computers and Distance
Education, Pergamon, Oxford, 50-62.
Harasim, L. M. (1990). Online education: An environment for collaboration
and intellectual amplification, in L. M. Harasim (ed.), Online Education:
Perspectives on a New Environment, Praeger, New York, pp.39-64.
Harasim, L. (ed.) (1993). Global Networks: Computers and International
Communication, MIT Press, Cambridge MA.
GLOBAL NETWORKS takes up the host of issues raised by the new networking
technology that now links individuals, groups, and organizations in
different countries and on different continents. The twenty-one
contributions focus on the implementation, applications, and impact of
computer-mediated communication in a global context.
Previously limited to scientific research, global networks now have
an impact on social, educational, and business communications.
Individuals with a personal computer, a modem, and some simple
software can join a new social community that is based on interest,
not location. GLOBAL NETWORKS, which was written largely with the
assistance of the Internet, provides an understanding of the issues,
opportunities, and pitfalls of this new social connectivity. It
looks at how networking technology can support and augment
communication and collaboration from such perspectives as policy
constraints and opportunities, language differences, cross-cultural
communication, and social network design. [MIT blurb]
Harasim, L. and Winkelmans, T. (1990). Computer-mediated scholarly
collaboration: a case study of an international educational research
workshop, Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion, Utilization, 11(4): 382-409.
Haraway, D. J. (?). Simians, Cyborgs, and Women.
Hardison, O. B. (1989). Disappearing through the skylight: culture and
technology in the twentieth century, Viking.
Hauptmann, A. G. and rudnicky, A. I. (1988). Talking to computers: An
empirical investigation, International Journal of Man-Machine Studies,
28(6): 583-604.
Investigated how people communicate with a real-time, speaker-
independent continuous speech understanding system in an experiment
wih 30 electronic mail users. The experimental design compared 3
communication modes: natural language typing, speaking directly to
a computer, and speaking to a computer through a human interpreter.
Results show that people speaking to a computer were more
disciplined than when speaking to each other. There were
significant differences in the usage of spoken language compared to
typed language, and several phenomena that are unique to spoken or
typed input respectively. Usefulness for work in speech
understanding systems for the future is considered. [S. Rafaeli]
Heim, M. (1986). Humanistic discussion and the online conference, Philosophy
Today, 30: 278-88.
Heimstra, G. (1982). Teleconferencing, concern for face, and organizational
culture, in M. Burgoon and N. E. Doran (eds), Communication Yearbook 6, Sage,
Beverley Hills, CA, pp. 874-904.
Hellerstein, L. N. (1985). The social use of electronic communication at a
major university, Computers and the Social Sciences (Special issue: Social
impact of computers), 1(3-4): 191-197.
Conducted a survey (via computerized communication) of 236 users of
computerized mail systems, divided roughly equally between heavy
and light users. Heavy users were more likely to use the computer
to initiate new friendships, make new friends, and communicate with
others, whereas light users tended to do these things in other
ways. It is concluded that a segment of the computer population,
heavy users, uses the computer to serve social needs. [S. Rafaeli]
Hellerstein, L. (1989). Creating social reality with computer-mediated
communication. PhD Dissertation, University of Massachusetts.
Herring, S., Johnson, D. and Di Benedetto, T. (1992). Participation in
electronic discourse in a "Feminist" field, to appear in Locating Power:
Proceedings of the 1992 Berkeley Woman and Language Conference, UC,
Berkeley.
Hesse, B. W., Werner, C. M., and Altman, I. (1988). Temporal aspects of
computer-mediated communication, Computers in Human Behavior, 4: 147-165.
Hill, G.W. (1982) Group versus individual performance: Are N+1 heads
better than one? Psychologica Bulletin, 91, 517-539.
Hiltz, S. R. (1988). Productivity enhancement from computer-mediated
communication: A systems contingency approach, Communications of the ACM,
31(12): 1438-1454.
Hiltz, S. R. (1984). Online Communities: A Case Study of the Office of the
Future. Human/Computer Interaction, Ablex, Norwood.
Hiltz, S. R. and Johnson, K. (1989). Experiments in group decision making,
3: Disinhibition, deindividuation, and group process in pen name and real name
computer conferences, Decision Support Systems, 5: 217-32.
Hiltz, S. R. and Johnson, K. (1991). Measuring acceptance of
computer-mediated communication systems, Journal of the American Society
for Information, 40: 386-397.
Hiltz, S. R. and Turoff, M. (1985). Structuring computer-mediated communication
systems to avoid information overload, Communications of the ACM, 28(7):
680-689.
Hiltz, S. R., Turoff, M. and Johnson, K. (1989). Experiments in group
decision making, 3: Disinhibition, deindividuation, and group process in
pen name and real name computer conferences, Decision Support Systems,
5: 217-232.
Hiltz, S. R. and Turoff, M. (1978). The network nation, human communication
via computer, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
Hjalmarsson, A., Oestreicher, L. and Waern, Y. (1989). Human factors in
electronic mail system design, Behaviour and Information Technology, 8(6):
461-474.
Analyzes how human factors aspects and system design aspects may
co-operate in the design of electronic mail systems. A review of
research on the experience of electronic mail systems is presented.
Results of a pilot study carried out with 6 users (aged 30-45 yrs)
with different task responsibilities and levels of experience
suggest that a task analysis is essential in system design. It is
suggested that communication support can facilitate co-operation
between end-users and system designers. [S. Rafaeli]
Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
Holter, H., Hildur, V. and Haavind, H. (1985). Coopoeration and
conflict: a case study of a women's research network in Norway, Women's
Studies International Forum, 8(1): 37-44.
Huber, G. P. (1984). Issues in the design of group decision support systems,
MIS Quarterly, September.
Huff, C., Sproull, L. and Kiesler, S. (1989). Computer communication and
organizational commitment: Tracing the relationship in a city government,
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19(16): 1371-1391.
Humphrey, C. (1985). Getting a turnout: the plight of the organizer.
Experiences in promoting a computer conference, IASSIST Quarterly,
9(2): 14-27.
Hunger, J. and Allen, M. (1992). Adaptation to electronic mail, Journal
of Applied Communication Research, August: 254-275.
This investigation proposes and tests a path model of
the adaptation process to electronic mail using the
Komsky (1991) data. The results demonstrate that the
user satisfaction and frequency of use are predicted by
features consistent with the "media richness" theory
.....The model demonstrates some useful information on
understanding the ability of an organization to smoothly
and efficiently adopt an electronic mail system that
employees will use frequently and satisfactorily.
Jewett, T. and Kling, R. (1991). The dynamics of computerization in a
social science research team: a case study of infrastructure, strategies
and skills, Social Science Computer Review, 9(2): 246-275.
Johansen, R., Vallee, J. and Spangler, K. (1979). Electronic meetings:
Technical alternatives and social choices, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
Johansen, R. (1988). Groupware: computer support for business teams, Free
Press, New York.
Jost, K. L. et al. (1990). Computer mediated communication, Instructional
Developments, 1(1): 15-22.
Katovich, M. A. and Reeses II, W. A. (1987). The regular: Full time
identities and memberships in an urban bar, Journal of Contemporary
Ethnography, 16: 308-343.
Katzen, M. (1982). The impact of new technologies on scholarly communication,
in Katzen, M. (ed.), Multi-Media Communications, Frances Pinter, London.
Kaye, A. R. (ed.) (1992). Collaborative Learning Through Computer
Conferencing: the Najaden Papers, NATO ASI Series F: Computer and systems
Sciences, Vol.90, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
The book is the product of a workshop held on a sailing
ship; the contributors agreed to each write a chapter
for the book arising out of the discussion they held on
the ship. Kaye's opening chapter is a good overview of
research issues in CMC, and there's a section of the book
devoted to talking about research methods as well as a
section reporting results of research. [C. Dickie]
Kerr, E. B. (1986). Electronic leadership: A guide to moderating online
conferences, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 29(1): 12-18.
Kerr, E. B. and Hiltz, S. R. (1992). CMC Systems: Status and Evaluation,
Academic Press, New York.
Kiesler, S., Siegel, J., and McGuire, T. W. (1984). Social psychological
aspects of computer-mediated communication, American Psychologist, 39(10):
1123-1134.
Describes some of the issues raised by electronic communication,
including time and information-processing pressures, absence of
regulating feedback, dramaturgical weakness, paucity of status and
position cues, social anonymity, and computing norms and immature
etiquette. An empirical approach for investigating the social
psychological effects of electronic communication is illustrated,
and how social psychological research might contribute to a deeper
understanding of computers and technological change in society and
computer-mediated communication (CMC) is discussed. A series of
studies that explored how people participate in CMC and how
computerization affects group efforts to reach consensus is
described; results indicate differences in participation,
decisions, and interaction among groups meeting face to face and in
simultaneous computer-linked discourse and communication by
electronic mail. Findings are attributed to difficulties of
coordination from lack of informational feedback, absence of social
influence cues for controlling discussion, and depersonalization
from lack of nonverbal involvement and absence of norms. (103 ref)
[S. Rafaeli]
Kiesler, S. and Sproull, L. (eds) (1987). Computing and Change on
Campus, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Koch, S. (1991). Electronic networks and science, in C. McClure et al.
(eds), The National Research and Education Network (NREN): Research and
Policy Perspectives, Ablex, Norwood.
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for information science, Bulletin of the American Society for Information
Science 4(5): 22-3.
Komsky, S. H. (1991). A profile of users of electronic mail in a
university: frequent versus occasional users, Management Communication
Quarterly, 4(3): 310-340.
Koole, T. and Ten Thije, J. D. (1994) The Construction of Intercultural
Discourse, Editions Rodopi B. V., Netherlands.
This book breaks open the 'black box' of the workplace where
successful immigrants work together with their Dutch colleagues. In
their intercultural team meetings the work itself consists of
communication and the question is how that work is done. The teams
consist of Dutch, Turkish, Moroccan, and Surinamese educational
experts whose job it is to advise schools and teachers on the form
and content of language teaching. Most studies on intercultural
communications focus on misunderstandings and miscommunications. The
book demonstrates that also communication without miscommunication
can be shown to be intercultural.
Kraemer, K. L. and Pinsonneault, A. (1990). Technology and groups: Asssessment
of the empirical research, in J. Galegher, R. E. Kraut, and E. Egido (eds),
Intellectual Teamwork: Social and Technological Foundations of Cooperative
Work, Lawrence Erlbaum,Hillsdale, NJ, pp.375-405.
Krauss, R. M. and Fussell, S. (1990). Mutual knowledge and communicative
effectiveness, in Galegher, J., Kraut, R. and Egido, C. (eds),
Intellectual Teamwork: Social and Technological Foundations of
Cooperative Work, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp. 111-145.
Kraut, R., Galegher, J. and Egido, C. (1987-88). Relationships and tasks
in scientific collaboration, Human-Computer Interaction, 3: 31-58.
Kraut, R., Egido, C. and Galegher, J. (1990> Patterns of contact and
communication in scientific research collaborations, in Galegher, J.,
Kraut, R. and Egido, C. (eds), Intellectual Teamwork: Social and
Technological Foundations of Cooperative Work, Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
Kurshan, B. (1990). Educational telecommunications connections for the
classroom?, The Computing Teacher, 17(6): 30-35 and 17(7): 51-53.
Lai, K.Y., Malone, T. W. and Yu, K-C. (1988). Object lens: A `spreadsheet' for
cooperative work, ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, 6(4):
332-53.
Lanham, R.A. (1993) The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the
Arts. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. ISBM #0226468836
Lanham raises a number of provocative issues and introduces his
readers to the world of electronic rhetoric. It is a sophisticated
treatment, but provides a good background of the concepts relevant
in contemporary rhetorical and post-modern criticism of electronic
exchanges. [G. Phillips]
Lea, M. (ed.) (1992). Contexts of computer-mediated communication,
Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York.
Has a broad range of issues and theories related to CMC, it contains
a very sharp theoretical examination of unstructured CMC in groups
and the social effects by Spears and Lea; a wide-ranging chapter by
Rice on theories about CMC in a variety of domains such as political
and other; a cutting critique of the "flaming" research by Lea et
al.; intriguing work by Matheson on gender- and other social-status
cues; and other good chapters. [J. Walther]
Lea, M. (1991). Rationalist assumptions in cross-media comparisons of
computer-mediated communication, Behaviour and Information Technology,
10(2): 153-172.
13 electronic mail users within a large commercial
telecommunications company compared different communication
activities, using repertory grid technique, in a study of users'
views of computer-mediated communication (CMC). Electronic mailing
was construed as being similar to written activities (such as
notewriting) on some dimensions (e.g., asynchrony, emotional
quality) but similar to spoken, face- to-face communication on
other dimensions such as spontaneity. Results suggest that the
group of users construed CMC mainly in terms of its attributes as a
medium for conversation and social interaction. There was no
evidence of spontaneous task-related media comparisons. These
results are discussed in terms of rationalist and symbolic
interactionist perspectives on CMC. [S. Rafaeli]
Lemke, J. L. (1992). Discourse, dynamics and social change, Cultural
Dynamics, Special Issue on Language as Cultural Dynamic (ed. M. A. K.
Halliday).
Lemke, J. L. (1993). Education, cyberspace and change, Arachnet Electronic
Journal on Virtual Culture, 1(1).
Presents a strong argument that electronic communication will
dramatically change the way we educate and formulates a "new
model of education in cyberspace rather than in school and
classrooms". [Martin Buck]
Levin, J. A., Kim, H. and Riel, M. M. (1990). Analysing instructional
interactions on electronic message networks, in L. M. Harasim (ed.),
Online Education: Perspectives on a New Environment, Praeger Publ., New
York, pp. 185-213.
Levinson, P. (1988). Mind at Large: Knowing in the Technological Age,
JAI Press, Connecticut.
Levinson, P. (1989). Media Relations: Integrating computer
telecommunications with educational media, Pergamon, London.
Lewis, L. (1991). Interactive technologies in organizations, Communication
Education, 40(2): 202-212.
Lindgaard, G. and Perry, L. (1988). Towards a solution to vocabulary
problems in computing: A measure of goodness of fit, Ergonomics, 31(5):
785-801.
Examined preferences for certain labels in the context of
electronic mail and the extent to which such preferences may be
indicative of performance, using 132 Ss. Two measures of goodness
of fit were used to assess the degree to which short labels
describing service elements matched descriptions of the services.
In Exp I, 3 different labels were tested for 16 services. Ss
preferred generic over technical labels. This was confirmed in Exp
II, which employed a different method of measurement. A simulation
of an electronic mail system was prepared in a pen/paper format for
Exp III, and the link between preference and performance was quite
high in some tasks. (French, German & Japanese abstracts) [S.
Rafaeli]
Mabrito, M. Writing apprehension and computer-mediated peer-response
groups: A case study of four high- and four low-apprehensive writers
communicating face-to-face versus electronic mail, Dissertation Abstracts
International, 50(10-A), 3171.
McGuire, T. W., Kiesler, S. and Siegel, J. (1987). Group and computer-mediated
discussion effects in risk decision making, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 52(5): 917-30.
Mackay, W. E. (1988). Diversity in the use of electronic mail: A preliminary
inquiry, ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, 6(4): 380-97.
McLeod, P. L. (1992). An assessment of the experimental literature on
electronic support of group work: Results of a meta-analysis.
Human-Computer Interaction, 7, 257-280.
Madsen, D.B. & Finger, J.R., Jr. (1978) Comparison of a written feedback
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Applied Psychology, 63, 120-123.
Malone, T. W., Grant, K. R., Turbak, F. A., Brobst, S. A. and Cohen, M. D.
(1987). Intelligent information-sharing systems, Communications of the ACM,
30(5): 390-402.
Malone, T. W., Yates, J. and Benjamin, R. L. (1987). Electronic markets and
electronic hierarchies, Communications of the ACM, 30(6): 484-497.
Markus, M. L. (1987). Toward a 'Critical Mass' theory of interactive media:
universal access, interdependence and diffusion, Communication Research, 14(5):
491-511.
Markus, L. (1990). Toward a 'Critical Mass' theory of interactive media, in
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on self awareness, Computers in Human Behavior, 4: 221-233.
Matheson, K. and Zanna, M. P. (1990). Computer-mediated communications:
The focus is on me, Social Science Computer Review, 8(1): 1-12.
Mbaatyo, A. A. (1988). The new telecommunications technology and the
human factors: The impact of video conferencing on perceived group
cohesiveness, PhD Thesis, Ohio University.
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Emotions and Attitudes, 2nd edn, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.
Mehrabian, A. and Reed, H. (1968). Some determinants of communication
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and object of communication in a verbal message: Application to the
inference of attitudes, Journal of Consulting Psychology, 30: 420-425.
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(1984). The process of studying process in organizational communication,
Journal of Communication, 34: 22-43.
Monge, P. R. and Eisenberg, E. M. (1987). Emerging communication networks, in
Jablin, F. M., Putnam, L. L., Roberts, K. H. and Porter, L. (eds), Handbook
of Organizational Communication: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, Sage,
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measure the perceived characteristics of adopting an information
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Morton, M. S. S. (ed.) (1991). The Corporation of the 1990s: Information
Technology and Organizational Transformation, Oxford University Press,
New York.
Murray, D. E. (1988). The context of oral and written language: a
framework for mode and medium switching, Language in Society, 17, 351-373.
Murray, D. E. (1991). Conversation for action: the computer terminal as a
medium of communication, John Benjamins, Amsterdam.
Murray, D. E. (1991). The composing process for computer conversation,
Written Communication, 8, 35-55.
Murray, D. (?) Composition as conversation: The computer terminal as medium
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manipulation of computer-mediated communication contexts, Qualitative
Sociology, 10(3): 251-266.
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communication, Internet Research, 3(4), 30-38.
Interesting comparison between mailing lists, which automatically
prompt user by notification, and bulletin boards, which are
more passive and require user searching. [Joel Cohen]
New Directions for Program Evaluation Journal (1984). Issue on mail
surveys and response rates.
Newman, J. and Newman, R. (1992). Three modes of collaborative
authoring, in Holt, P. and Williams, N. (eds), Computers and Writing:
State of the Art, Intellect Books, UK and Kluwer, USA.
Newman J. and Newman, R. (in press, 1992). Two failures in computer mediated
textcommunication, in Sharples, M. (ed.), Computers and Writing: Issues
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Newman, R. and Newman, J. (in press, 1993). Social writing: Premises and
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Supported Collaborative Writing, Springer-Verlag, London.
Nowicke, C. E. (1988). Managing tomorrow's records today: an experiment in
archival preservation of electronic mail, The Midwestern ARchivist, 13(2):
66-76.
Encouraged by the speed of transmission and ease of use, many
organizations are relying heavily on electronic mail for internal and
external communications. What are the implications of electronic mail
for the archivist? An experiment was undertaken by the Navy
Laboratories History Program to examine use of electronic mail within
the Navy Laboratory community and attempt to preserve and archivally
manage this evanescent form of communication. [Author's abstract].
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implications for technical communication activities, Journal of Technical
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38-51
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computer-mediated communication, Communication Education, 38: 151-161.
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for interpersonal influence in organizations, Dissertation Abstracts
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meetings on group processes and outcomes: An assessment of the empirical
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Bicentennial Studies, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
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Proceedings 25th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences,
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Postman, N. (1992). Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology,
Knopf.
Potosnak, K. M. and Van Nes, F. L. (1984). Effects of replacing text with
speech output in an electronic mail application, IPO Annual Progress
Report, 19: 123-129.
Conducted exploratory study of speech output, using an electronic
mail program. All mail messages were in text, but program
instructions were either in text or speech. 20 Ss (aged 17-29 yrs)
each used both versions of the program. Results show that although
speech output took longer, Ss could perform their tasks equally
well with the text and speech output modes. Ss interrupted the
speech instructions 20% of the time but used the repeat key
infrequently. Although the speech was rated as understandable, Ss
showed a slight preference for the text version over the speech
version. However, Ss who used the speech version before they used
the text version rated the program as more interesting, more
useful, and more fun than Ss who used the versions in reverse
order. Finally, Ss wrote down more task information (as notes) when
they used the speech version, even though that information was in
text form for both versions. (6 ref) [S. Rafaeli]
Prinz, W. (1989). Survey of group communication models and systems, in
Pankoke and Babetz, Computer Based Group Communication: The Amigo
Activity Model, Ellis Norwood, Chichester, UK.
Quarterman, J. S. (1990). The Matrix: Computer Networks and Conferencing
Systems Worldwide, Digital, Bedford, MA.
Includes good history of computer networks.
Quinn, C. N., Mehan, H., Levin, J. A. and Black, S. D. (1983). Real
education in non-real time: the use of electronic message systems for
instruction, Instructional Science, 11: 313-327.
Rafaeli, S. (1986). The electronic bulletin board, Computers and the Social
Sciences, 2: 123-136.
Rafaeli, S. (1988). Interactivity: From new media to communication, in R. P.
Hawkins, J. M. Weimann and S. Pingree (eds.), Advancing Communication
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Rafaeli, S. (1990). Interacting with media: Parasocial interaction and real
interaction, in B. D. Ruben and L. A. Lievrouw (eds), Information and
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Rafaeli, S. and LaRose, R. (1993). Electronic bulletin boards
and "public goods" explanations of collaborative mass media,
Communications Research, 20(2): 277-297.
Collaborative mass media are a new type of mass communications
medium in which the audience acts both as the source and the
receiver of the message. Theories of discretionary database
contributions and critical mass theory offer parallel explanations
for the success of collaborative media. The present research
integrated the predictions of these two perspectives in the context
of a national survey of public electronic bulletin board systems.
The study documented the nature and extent of electronic bulletin
board use and compared predictions about the success of
collaborative media based on the two theoretical perspectives. File
contribution levels and system adoption rates were both found to be
directly related to contribution levels, but not to overall
adoption levels. The results provided limited support for
discretionary database theory. [S. Rafaeli]
Rafaeli, S. and Ritchie, L.D. (1991). On the value of information, Paper
presented at the annual conference of the International Communication
Association, Chicago, May.
Rapaport, M. (1991). Computer Mediated Communications: Bulletin Boards,
Computer Conferencing, Electronic Mail, and Information Retrieval,
Wiley, New York.
Aimed at the corporate practitioner interested in implementing a
conference system. First chapter includes a sketch of some of the
history of conferencing tools. (Michael Holmes)
Reid, E. (1991). Electropolis: Communication and community on Internet
Relay Chat, Honors Thesis, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
Rheingold, H. (1991). Virtual Reality, Simon & Schuster, New York.
Rheingold, H. (1994). Virtual Community, Addison-Wesley.
Howard Rheingold is the ultimate insider on networked communication,
a key participant in the Bay Area "WELL" on-line community.
Venturing out from his own neighborhood on the WELL, he gives us a
tour of on-line culture in Japan, England, France, and on small and
large bulletin boards and networks throughout the United States. He
shows us the depth of human interaction made possible, ironically
enough, by this seemingly faceless technology, as well as the power
of true electronic democracy, and the positive educational force of
this medium... [from back cover of book]
Rice, R. E. (1980). The impacts of computer-mediated organizational and inter-
personal communication, Annual Review of Information Science and
Technology, 15: 221-49.
Rice, R. E., and Case, D. (1983). Electronic message systems in the university:
A description of use and utility, Journal of Communication, 33: 131-52.
Rice, R. E. (1987). Computer-mediated communication and organizational
innovation, Journal of Communication, 37(4): 65-94.
Rice, R. E. (1989). Issues and concepts in research on computer-mediated
communication systems, in J. A. Anderson (ed), Communication Yearbook
12, Sage, Newbury Park, CA, pp.436-476.
Rice, R. E. (1990). Computer-mediated communication system network data:
Theoretical concerns and empirical examples, International Journal of
Man-Machine Studies.
Rice, R. E. (1991). Communicating about computers and communications: a
course overview, in L. Lederman (ed.), Communication Pedagogy: Theory and
Practice, Ablex, Norwood, NJ.
Rice, R. E. et al. (1984). The New Media, Communication, Research and
Technology, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.
Rice, R. E. and Love, G. (1987). Electronic emotion: Socioemotional content
in computer-mediated communication network, Communication Research, 14(1):
85-108.
Rice, R. E. and Shook, D. E. (1990). Voice messaging, coordination, and
communication, in J. Galegher, R. E. Kraut, and Egido, C (eds.) Intellectual
teamwork: Social and Technological Foundations of Cooperative Work, Lawrence
Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 327-350.
Rifkin, W. D. (1993). Who need not be heard: deciding who is not an expert,
Technology Studies (Ejournal, ed.: U. E. Gattiker, gattiker3@hg.uleth.ca)
When listening to an individual speak in a technical
arena, we decide whether to regard him or her as an expert or
not an expert. This process of evaluation is examined in this
article with use of the concept of expert status. Expert
status represents a high participation status in a
conversation. I apply conversation analysis to a formal
setting, hearings of a water board concerned with toxic waste
issues. Two dialogues illustrate how Water Board members
decide whose testimony is worth hearing. Board members
regulate testimony by applying the criterion of "relevance"
stated in the hearing rules. "Relevance" appears to stand for
a range of factors involving the information offered, a
testifier's identity, and norms and rituals of the hearing
process. This finding has implications for managers' decisions
about what is "relevant" -- and whose voice is worth hearing --
in technical decisionmaking.
Rogers, E. M. (1986). Communication Technology: The new media in society, New
York, Free Press.
Has chapter on the history, changing paradigms and implications for
research, and also a modification of diffusion theory applicable to
interactive media. [C. McKearney, CMC]
Rogers, G. (1989). Teaching a psychology course by electronic mail, Social
Science Computer Review, 7(1): 60-64.
Examined the use of electronic mail (EM) in teaching a course as an
example of outreach or humanizing instruction. Evaluations from 5
students who completed the course demonstrated Ss' favorable
response to various aspects of an EM course. [S. Rafaeli]
Rogers, E. M. (1990). New Communication technologies and the marketplace of
ideas, Paper presented at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass
Communication, Minneapolis, August.
Rogers, E. M. and Chaffee, S. H. (1983). Communication as an academic
discipline: a dialogue, Journal of Communication, 33(3): 18-30.
Rogers, E. M. and Kincaid, D. L. (1984). Communication Networks:
Toward a New Paradigm for Research, Free Press, New York, NY.
Rogers, E. M. and Rafaeli, S. (1985). Computers and communication, in B. D.
Ruben (ed.), Information and Behavior, Vol 1, Transaction Books, New Brunswick,
NJ, pp. 135-155.
Rosengren, K. E. (ed.) (1981). Advances in Content Analysis, Sage, Beverly
Hills, CA.
Roulet, R. G. (1990). Using the interact system model to analyse
computer mediated communication during small group problem-solving task,
in Proceedings of the Third Guelph symposium on Computer Mediated
Communication, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, pp. 168-180.
Saltzman, A. (1992). Improving response rates in DBM (disk by mail).
Sawtooth conference proceedings.
Santoro, G. M. (1989). Support of group problem solving instruction through
computer-mediated communication, Pennsylvania State University.
Schaeffermeyer, M. J. and Sewell, E. H. (1988). Communicating by electronic
mail, American Behavioral Scientist, 32(2): 112-23
Reviews the development of, and research on, computer-mediated
communication and reports results of a survey of 200 users
of 3 separate computer networks. Results indicate that
electronic mail was increasingly being used to replace other
communication channels (e.g., surface mail, telephone, and
face-to-face meetings). [S. Rafaeli]
Schmitz, J., and Fulk, J. (1991). Organizational colleagues, media
richness, and electronic meal. A test of the social influence model of
technological use, Communication Research, 18(4): 487-523.
Predicted individuals' E-mail assessments and usage. Social
influences of colleagues had pervasive effects on others' media
assessments. Findings show that a consideration of social
influences aids understanding of how individuals perceive and use
new information technology. [S. Rafaeli]
Schrage, M. (1990). Shared Minds, The New Technologies of Collaboration,
Random House.
Schudson, M. (1978). The ideal of conversation in the study of mass media,
Communications Research, 5(3): 320-329.
Social scientists who study the mass media share a widely held
"ideal of conversation" which assumes that face-to-face
interpersonal communication is characterized by continuous feedback
between participants, multichannel communication, spontaneous
utterance, and egalitarian norms. Compared to this image of what
face-to-face conversation is like, communication by mass media
seems inferior. It is argued however, that this "ideal of
conversation" does not correspond closely to most actual
conversations. It is argued further that the rise of the mass media
is itself responsible for the development of an ideal of
conversation and is responsible for making ideal conversations more
often realized in practice. The contribution of the mass media to
face-to-face conversation has been to make conversation. [S.
Rafaeli]
Selfe, C. L., and Eilola, J. D. (1988). The tie that binds: building discourse
communities and group cohesion through computer-based conferences, Collegiate
Microcomputer, 6(4): 339-348.
Sherblom, J. C. (1990) Organizational involvement expressed through
pronoun use in computer mediated communication, Communication Research
Reports, 7(1): 45-50.
Analyzed the content of 157 electronic mail files sent to a manager
of a large organization over several months. Significant
differences were found in the use of the personal pronouns "I",
"we", "you", and "they". Results show that the use of personal
pronouns reflects the degree of involvement in an organization in
predictable ways. "I" indicated less involvement, while "we" and
"them" showed greater involvement. [S. Rafaeli]
Shamp, S. A. (1991). Mechanomorphism: the perception of computer
communication partners, Computers in Human Behavior, 7: 147-161.
Shapira, R. and Navon, D. (1991). Alone together: Public and private
dimensions of a Tel-Aviv Cafe, Qualitative Sociology, 14(2): 107-125.
Shapiro, N. Z., and Anderson, R. H. (1985). Toward an ethics and etiquette
for electronic mail, Report R-3283-NSF/RC, Rand Corporation, Santa Monica,
CA.
Sharkey and Stafford, (1990). Turn taking resources employed by congenitally
blind conversers, Communication Studies, 41(2).
Demonstrates the utility of conversational analysis as a counterpoint
to deterministic "cues filtered out" views.
Shields, S. F. (1989). Development of a methodology for the analysis of
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